Introduction: Understanding the Language of Archaeology
Archaeology employs specialized terminology that helps professionals communicate precisely about methods, findings, interpretations, and theoretical approaches. This vocabulary has developed over centuries of archaeological practice, drawing from multiple disciplines including anthropology, geology, history, and various scientific fields. Mastering these terms is essential for archaeological fieldwork, laboratory analysis, report writing, and engaging with archaeological literature. This guide organizes key archaeological terminology by category for easy reference by students, professionals, and anyone interested in understanding archaeological discourse.
Chronological & Dating Terminology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Absolute Dating | Methods that provide specific calendar dates (e.g., radiocarbon dating, dendrochronology) |
| Relative Dating | Methods that determine age in relation to other items/contexts without specific calendar dates |
| Terminus Post Quem | “Date after which” – the earliest possible date for an archaeological context |
| Terminus Ante Quem | “Date before which” – the latest possible date for an archaeological context |
| Stratigraphy | Study of layered deposits to establish relative chronological sequence |
| Seriation | Dating method based on changes in artifact style/frequency over time |
| Chronology | Arrangement of events/periods in time sequence |
| Period | Distinct timespan characterized by particular cultural traits or developments |
| Radiocarbon Dating | Dating method measuring decay of carbon-14 isotopes in organic materials |
| Dendrochronology | Dating method using tree ring patterns to establish precise chronologies |
| OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) | Dating method measuring time since mineral grains were last exposed to light |
| Archaeomagnetism | Dating method based on changes in Earth’s magnetic field recorded in heated materials |
| Typology | Classification and dating of artifacts based on characteristic features and styles |
| Sequence Dating | Establishing chronological order of artifacts/contexts based on stylistic evolution |
| Cultural Phase | Distinct time period identified by characteristic material culture |
| Palimpsest | Multiple temporal layers compressed or mixed together in a single archaeological context |
Excavation & Field Methods
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Excavation | Systematic digging and documentation of archaeological deposits |
| Survey | Systematic examination of land surface to locate and record archaeological sites |
| Shovel Test Pit | Small exploratory excavation to identify presence/absence of archaeological material |
| Trench | Long, narrow excavation used to expose stratigraphy or features |
| Grid System | Coordinate system established for precise spatial recording during excavation |
| Quadrant/Grid Square | Standard spatial unit of excavation within a site grid |
| Vertical Excavation | Digging through successive layers to reveal chronological sequence |
| Horizontal Excavation | Exposing a large area of a single time period/occupation layer |
| Context | Distinct unit of stratification representing a single depositional event or feature |
| Feature | Non-portable evidence of human activity (e.g., hearth, pit, wall) |
| In Situ | Describing artifacts found in their original deposited position |
| Arbitrary Level | Artificial vertical divisions used when natural stratigraphy isn’t visible |
| Datum Point | Fixed reference point from which all measurements at a site are taken |
| Baulk/Balk | Unexcavated section between excavation units preserved for stratigraphic analysis |
| Sondage | Deep, often narrow test excavation to establish site stratigraphy |
| Flotation | Technique to recover small materials by processing soil in water |
| Provenience | Precise three-dimensional location of an artifact or feature |
| Locus (pl. Loci) | Distinct spatial unit or feature within an excavation |
| Pedestrian Survey | Systematic walking of terrain to identify surface artifacts and features |
Artifacts & Material Culture
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Artifact | Any object made, modified, or used by humans |
| Assemblage | Collection of artifacts found in association with each other |
| Lithic | Stone tools and related materials (debitage, cores) |
| Ceramic | Objects made from fired clay (pottery, figurines) |
| Debitage | Waste material produced during stone tool manufacture |
| Biface | Stone tool worked on both faces/sides |
| Sherd/Shard | Fragment of broken pottery |
| Core | Stone from which flakes are removed to make tools |
| Flake | Piece of stone removed during tool manufacture |
| Typology | Classification system for artifacts based on form and attributes |
| Attribute | Specific characteristic or property of an artifact |
| Primary Context | Artifacts found where they were originally deposited or used |
| Secondary Context | Artifacts moved from their original location by natural or cultural processes |
| Rim Sherd | Fragment from the upper edge of a ceramic vessel |
| Body Sherd | Fragment from the main body of a ceramic vessel |
| Base Sherd | Fragment from the bottom of a ceramic vessel |
| Diagnostic Artifact | Item with characteristics that identify specific cultural or temporal placement |
| Complete Artifact | Whole, unbroken object |
| Fragmented Artifact | Broken but reconstructable object |
| Curation | Long-term care, preservation, and management of artifacts |
Archaeological Materials & Ecofacts
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ecofact | Natural material with archaeological significance (e.g., animal bones, seeds) |
| Lithic | Pertaining to stone |
| Ceramic | Pertaining to fired clay objects |
| Faunal Remains | Animal bones and other remains found in archaeological contexts |
| Botanical Remains | Plant materials (seeds, pollen, phytoliths) found in archaeological contexts |
| Midden | Accumulated domestic refuse/waste deposit |
| Macrobotanical | Visible plant remains recoverable without microscopy |
| Microbotanical | Microscopic plant remains (pollen, phytoliths, starch grains) |
| Palynology | Study of pollen and spores to reconstruct past environments |
| Charcoal | Carbonized wood, often used for radiocarbon dating |
| Coprolite | Preserved fecal material, studied for diet information |
| Human Remains | Skeletal or soft tissue remains of humans |
| Zooarchaeology | Study of animal remains from archaeological sites |
| Archaeobotany | Study of plant remains from archaeological sites |
| Phytolith | Microscopic silica body formed in plant cells |
| Residue | Traces of materials adhering to artifacts (e.g., food, pigment) |
| Malacology | Study of mollusk remains in archaeological contexts |
| Dendroarchaeology | Study of tree rings in archaeological wood |
| Micromorphology | Microscopic study of soil and sediment structures |
Archaeological Features
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Feature | Non-portable evidence of human activity |
| Posthole | Hole dug to hold a structural post |
| Hearth | Fire pit or cooking area |
| Pit | Intentionally dug depression for storage, refuse, or other purposes |
| Wall | Vertical structural element of a building |
| Foundation | Base structure supporting a building |
| Floor | Prepared horizontal surface for living/working |
| Midden | Accumulated waste deposit |
| Burial | Intentional deposit of human remains |
| Cache | Intentionally hidden or stored collection of objects |
| Kiln | Structure for firing pottery or other materials |
| Ditch | Linear excavation for defense, drainage, or boundaries |
| Well | Shaft dug to access groundwater |
| Postmold | Soil discoloration marking where a post decomposed |
| Stone Circle | Arrangement of stones marking tent/tipi location or ceremonial space |
| Earthwork | Human-made modification of land topography |
| Rock Art | Paintings or carvings on rock surfaces |
| Fill | Material used to fill a pit, ditch, or other depression |
| Occupation Layer | Horizon containing evidence of human habitation |
| Activity Area | Space dedicated to a specific function or task |
Stratigraphy & Formation Processes
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Stratigraphy | Study of layered deposits and their formation |
| Stratigraphic Sequence | Chronological order of deposited layers |
| Layer/Stratum (pl. Strata) | Distinct horizontal deposit of material |
| Context | Discrete unit of stratification |
| Matrix | Soil or sediment surrounding artifacts |
| Interface | Surface or boundary between stratigraphic units |
| Harris Matrix | Diagrammatic representation of stratigraphic relationships |
| Formation Process | Natural or cultural mechanisms creating archaeological deposits |
| Taphonomy | Study of processes affecting organisms after death until discovery |
| Bioturbation | Disturbance of soils/sediments by organisms |
| Cryoturbation | Disturbance of soils by freezing and thawing cycles |
| Post-depositional Process | Factors affecting sites after initial deposition |
| Disturbed Context | Archaeological deposits altered after initial deposition |
| Undisturbed Context | Archaeological deposits unaltered since initial deposition |
| Primary Deposition | Original placement of materials by humans |
| Secondary Deposition | Redeposition of materials from their original context |
| Cut | Intentional removal of material creating a negative feature |
| Fill | Material deposited within a cut or negative feature |
| Superposition | Principle that lower strata were deposited before higher ones |
Site Types & Settlement Patterns
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Site | Location with evidence of past human activity |
| Settlement | Location of human habitation |
| Habitation Site | Location where people lived |
| Camp | Temporary habitation location |
| Village | Permanent settlement of moderate size |
| Urban Center | Large, complex settlement with specialized functions |
| Ceremonial Center | Site primarily used for ritual activities |
| Quarry | Site for extracting stone or other raw materials |
| Workshop | Site for manufacturing goods |
| Cemetery | Area designated for burial of the dead |
| Isolated Find | Single artifact not associated with a site |
| Lithic Scatter | Surface distribution of stone artifacts |
| Shell Midden | Accumulation of discarded shells and associated materials |
| Rock Shelter | Natural overhang used for habitation |
| Cave Site | Natural underground space used by humans |
| Tell/Mound | Artificial hill formed by successive settlements |
| Landscape Archaeology | Study of entire landscapes rather than discrete sites |
| Catchment Area | Resource zone accessible from a settlement |
| Central Place | Settlement with administrative functions for surrounding area |
| Hinterland | Area economically tied to a central settlement |
Archaeological Analyses & Techniques
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Typological Analysis | Classification of artifacts based on form and attributes |
| Technological Analysis | Study of manufacturing methods and techniques |
| Use-wear Analysis | Examination of wear patterns on artifacts to determine function |
| Spatial Analysis | Study of relationships between artifacts and features in space |
| Petrographic Analysis | Microscopic examination of rocks/minerals in artifacts |
| Residue Analysis | Study of materials adhering to artifact surfaces |
| XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) | Technique identifying elemental composition of materials |
| Isotope Analysis | Examination of isotope ratios for provenance or diet studies |
| DNA Analysis | Study of genetic material preserved in archaeological remains |
| Remote Sensing | Detection of subsurface features using non-invasive techniques |
| GIS (Geographic Information System) | Computer system for storing/analyzing spatial data |
| 3D Scanning | Creating digital three-dimensional models of artifacts/features |
| Photogrammetry | Creating measurements and models from photographs |
| Archaeometry | Application of scientific techniques to archaeological materials |
| Experimental Archaeology | Recreation of past processes to understand archaeological evidence |
| Ethnoarchaeology | Study of living societies to aid archaeological interpretation |
| Archaeomagnetic Dating | Dating technique based on changes in Earth’s magnetic field |
| Luminescence Dating | Dating technique measuring time since minerals were last exposed to light |
| LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) | Remote sensing method using lasers to map terrain |
Archaeological Theory & Interpretation
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Culture History | Approach focusing on defining archaeological cultures and their chronology |
| Processual Archaeology | Approach emphasizing scientific methods and cultural processes |
| Post-processual Archaeology | Approach emphasizing multiple perspectives and interpretive aspects |
| Middle-Range Theory | Bridging concepts between archaeological evidence and interpretation |
| Archaeological Culture | Recurring assemblage of artifacts representing a particular group |
| Cultural Evolution | Study of changes in cultural systems over time |
| Agency | Concept examining individual decision-making within cultural contexts |
| Materiality | Study of relationships between people and material objects |
| Landscape Archaeology | Study of how people conceptualized and modified entire landscapes |
| Ethnohistory | Use of historical documents to interpret archaeological evidence |
| Cognitive Archaeology | Study of past thought systems and symbolic behavior |
| Gender Archaeology | Study of gender systems and roles in past societies |
| Indigenous Archaeology | Archaeology conducted with/by indigenous communities |
| Public Archaeology | Engagement of the public in archaeological research/interpretation |
| Historical Archaeology | Archaeology of periods with written records |
| Maritime Archaeology | Study of human interaction with seas, lakes, and rivers |
| Contextual Archaeology | Approach emphasizing the importance of context in interpretation |
| Systems Theory | Analysis of interrelated components of cultural systems |
| Behavioral Archaeology | Study of relationships between human behavior and material culture |
Professional Practice & Ethics
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cultural Resource Management (CRM) | Archaeological work conducted for regulatory compliance |
| Salvage Archaeology | Emergency excavation ahead of destruction by development |
| Conservation | Preservation and protection of archaeological materials |
| Curation | Long-term care and management of archaeological collections |
| Preservation in Place | Protecting archaeological sites without excavation |
| Site Stewardship | Ongoing protection and monitoring of archaeological sites |
| Archaeological Impact Assessment | Evaluation of potential impacts to archaeological resources |
| Mitigation | Measures to reduce impact on archaeological resources |
| Repository | Facility for long-term storage of archaeological materials |
| Accession | Formal process of accepting materials into a collection |
| Provenience | Original location/context of an archaeological find |
| Provenance | Ownership history of an archaeological object |
| Repatriation | Return of cultural items to originating communities |
| Field Notes | Documentation made during fieldwork |
| Site Report | Comprehensive documentation of excavation/survey results |
| Archaeological Record | Totality of physical evidence of past human activity |
| Cultural Heritage | Inherited traditions, monuments, objects, and culture |
| NAGPRA | Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (US law) |
| UNESCO World Heritage | International program protecting cultural/natural heritage |
| Looting | Illegal excavation of archaeological sites for profit |
Archaeological Documentation
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Field Notes | Written records made during fieldwork |
| Site Plan | Map showing horizontal relationships of features and artifacts |
| Section Drawing | Visual representation of vertical stratigraphy |
| Profile | Vertical face showing stratigraphic layers |
| Context Sheet | Form recording details of a single stratigraphic unit |
| Feature Form | Specialized record for archaeological features |
| Photo Log | Record of photographs taken during excavation |
| Artifact Catalog | Systematic listing of recovered artifacts |
| Harris Matrix | Diagram showing stratigraphic relationships |
| Level Record | Documentation of finds and observations within an excavation level |
| Site Grid | Coordinate system established for spatial control |
| Total Station | Electronic/optical instrument for precise spatial measurements |
| Scale Drawing | Accurately proportioned representation of archaeological findings |
| Lot | Group of artifacts from the same provenience |
| Field Catalog | Preliminary listing of finds created during fieldwork |
| Research Design | Plan outlining project goals, methods, and theoretical framework |
| Site File | Official record of an archaeological site in state/national database |
| GIS Database | Digital system for storing and analyzing spatial archaeological data |
| Digital Repository | Online archive for archaeological data and documentation |
| Gray Literature | Unpublished reports with limited distribution |
Archaeological Science Methods
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Archaeometry | Application of scientific techniques to archaeological materials |
| Radiometric Dating | Dating methods based on radioactive decay |
| Radiocarbon Dating (C14) | Dating organic materials using carbon-14 isotope decay |
| AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) | Technique for measuring isotope ratios in very small samples |
| Dendrochronology | Dating using tree ring patterns |
| Thermoluminescence (TL) | Dating ceramics and fire-altered materials |
| Archaeomagnetic Dating | Dating fired materials using Earth’s magnetic field record |
| Obsidian Hydration | Dating obsidian artifacts by measuring water absorption layer |
| ZooMS (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry) | Identifying animal species from protein fragments |
| Ancient DNA Analysis | Extracting and analyzing DNA from archaeological materials |
| Stable Isotope Analysis | Examining isotope ratios to study diet, migration, climate |
| LA-ICP-MS | Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry for elemental analysis |
| SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) | High-resolution imaging of artifact surfaces |
| FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) | Identifying organic compounds in archaeological materials |
| XRD (X-Ray Diffraction) | Identifying crystalline structures in archaeological materials |
| Micromorphology | Microscopic examination of soil thin sections |
| Paleobotany | Study of ancient plant remains |
| Palynology | Study of pollen to reconstruct past environments |
| Geoarchaeology | Application of earth science methods to archaeological questions |
| Bioarchaeology | Study of human remains from archaeological contexts |
Specialized Archaeological Subdisciplines
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Historical Archaeology | Archaeology of periods with written records |
| Prehistoric Archaeology | Study of human past before written records |
| Classical Archaeology | Study of ancient Greek, Roman, and related civilizations |
| Egyptian Archaeology | Study of ancient Egyptian civilization |
| Biblical Archaeology | Archaeology related to biblical texts and regions |
| Industrial Archaeology | Study of material evidence of industrial development |
| Underwater Archaeology | Study of submerged sites and materials |
| Maritime Archaeology | Study of human interaction with seas, lakes, and rivers |
| Conflict Archaeology | Study of sites related to warfare and conflict |
| Forensic Archaeology | Application of archaeological methods to legal investigations |
| Environmental Archaeology | Study of past human-environment relationships |
| Landscape Archaeology | Study of how humans shaped and perceived landscapes |
| Digital Archaeology | Use of digital technologies in archaeological research |
| Virtual Archaeology | Creation of digital visualizations of archaeological data |
| Urban Archaeology | Study of archaeological remains in urban contexts |
| Ethnoarchaeology | Study of living societies to aid archaeological interpretation |
| Experimental Archaeology | Recreation of ancient techniques to understand archaeological evidence |
| Archaeoastronomy | Study of how past cultures understood and used astronomy |
| Paleopathology | Study of disease and injury in archaeological human remains |
| Community Archaeology | Archaeological practice involving local communities |
Resources for Further Learning
Professional Organizations
- Society for American Archaeology (SAA)
- Archaeological Institute of America (AIA)
- World Archaeological Congress (WAC)
- Society for Historical Archaeology (SHA)
- European Association of Archaeologists (EAA)
- Register of Professional Archaeologists (RPA)
Key Publications
- “Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice” by Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn
- “A Dictionary of Archaeology” edited by Ian Shaw and Robert Jameson
- “Archaeological Theory: An Introduction” by Matthew Johnson
- “Handbook of Archaeological Methods” edited by Herbert Maschner and Christopher Chippindale
- Journal of Archaeological Science
- American Antiquity
- Antiquity
- Journal of Field Archaeology
Online Resources
- Archaeological Data Service (ADS)
- tDAR (The Digital Archaeological Record)
- Open Context
- Archaeology Data Service
- National Park Service Archaeology Program (US)
- Society for American Archaeology Resources
- Archaeological Institute of America Resources
This comprehensive guide to archaeological terminology provides a foundation for understanding the specialized language used in archaeological research, fieldwork, and publications. Familiarity with these terms facilitates clear communication among professionals and helps newcomers navigate the rich and complex world of archaeological study.