Ancient Greece: Philosophers & Contributions Cheat Sheet

Introduction

Ancient Greek philosophy laid the foundation for Western philosophical thought and scientific inquiry from roughly the 6th century BCE to the end of antiquity. These thinkers revolutionized how humans understand the world by shifting from mythological explanations to rational inquiry, creating systematic methods to investigate reality, knowledge, ethics, and politics that continue to influence modern thought.

Pre-Socratic Philosophers (6th-5th Century BCE)

Classical Period (5th-4th Century BCE)

Socrates (c.470-399 BCE)

• Method: Socratic method (dialectic questioning)
• Focus: Ethics, virtue, knowledge
• Key Concepts:
  • “Know thyself”
  • Virtue is knowledge
  • Examined life is the only one worth living
  • Claimed to “know that he did not know” (Socratic wisdom)
• Legacy:
  • Executed for “corrupting youth” and “impiety”
  • Known primarily through writings of others (Plato, Xenophon)
  • Shifted philosophy’s focus from natural world to human affairs

Plato (c.428-348 BCE)

• School: Founded the Academy
• Key Works: The Republic, Symposium, Phaedo, Apology
• Core Philosophical System:
  • Theory of Forms: True reality consists of perfect, eternal Forms; physical world is imperfect shadow
  • Epistemology: Knowledge is recollection of Forms the soul knew before birth
  • Psychology: Tripartite soul (reason, spirit, appetite)
  • Political Theory: Ideal state ruled by philosopher-kings
• Famous Allegories:
  • Cave (perception vs. reality)
  • Divided Line (levels of knowledge)
  • Chariot (soul’s components)

Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

• School: Founded the Lyceum (Peripatetic School)
• Key Works: Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, Metaphysics, Poetics
• Core Philosophical System:
  • Metaphysics: Form and matter; four causes (material, formal, efficient, final)
  • Logic: Syllogistic reasoning, categories, first systematic logic
  • Ethics: Virtue as golden mean between extremes; eudaimonia (flourishing) as goal
  • Politics: Humans as “political animals”; analysis of constitutions
  • Science: Systematic classification and empirical observation
• Legacy: Most influential in medieval thought, science, and logic

Hellenistic Schools (3rd Century BCE-3rd Century CE)

Key Philosophical Concepts & Comparisons

Theories of Knowledge

• Plato: Knowledge is recollection of eternal Forms; reason over senses
• Aristotle: Knowledge through empirical observation and logical analysis
• Skeptics: Certain knowledge impossible; suspend judgment
• Epicureans: Knowledge through sense perception; atoms and void

Ethical Theories

• Socrates/Plato: Virtue is knowledge; ignorance causes wrongdoing
• Aristotle: Virtue as golden mean; practical wisdom (phronesis)
• Stoics: Virtue as only good; indifference to externals
• Epicureans: Pleasure (absence of pain) as goal; prudent calculation

Conceptions of Reality

• Parmenides: Unchanging, unified Being as true reality
• Heraclitus: Constant flux; unity in change
• Plato: Transcendent Forms vs. physical appearances
• Aristotle: Form and matter united; teleological universe
• Atomists: Material atoms in void as fundamental reality

Common Philosophical Problems & Solutions

The Problem of Change

• Heraclitus: All is flux; stability found in the pattern of change
• Parmenides: Change is illusion; true reality is unchanging
• Aristotle: Potentiality becoming actuality; change as natural process

The Body-Soul Relationship

• Plato: Soul trapped in body; liberation through philosophy
• Aristotle: Soul as form of the body; unity of substance
• Epicureans: Both are material; soul disperses at death
• Stoics: Soul as fragment of divine fire/reason

The Good Life

• Socrates: Self-knowledge and virtue
• Plato: Harmony of soul; contemplation of Forms
• Aristotle: Virtuous activity according to reason; moderation
• Epicureans: Ataraxia (tranquility) through moderate pleasure
• Stoics: Living according to nature/reason; accepting fate

Philosophical Methods & Approaches

Dialectic (Socratic/Platonic)

• Start with common opinions or definitions
• Question and refine through critical examination
• Expose contradictions and refine understanding
• Goal: Move toward truth through dialogue

Aristotelian Analysis

• Systematic categorization
• Empirical observation
• Logical syllogisms
• Identification of causes

Hellenistic Practical Philosophy

• Focus on achieving tranquility (ataraxia)
• Spiritual exercises and daily practices
• Application to everyday life challenges
• Community of philosophical practitioners

Legacy & Influence

Mathematics & Science

• Pythagorean mathematical discoveries
• Aristotelian systematic classification
• Atomist theories anticipating modern physics
• Logical methods of inquiry

Political Theory

• Plato’s Republic (ideal state)
• Aristotle’s analysis of constitutions
• Stoic cosmopolitanism
• Cynics’ critique of social conventions

Modern Philosophy

• Renaissance revival of Platonism
• Aristotelian influence on medieval scholasticism
• Stoic influence on cognitive psychology
• Skeptical methods in epistemology

Resources for Further Study

Primary Texts

• Plato’s Dialogues (especially Republic, Symposium, Apology)
• Aristotle’s works (Nicomachean Ethics, Metaphysics, Politics)
• Epictetus’ Enchiridion (Stoicism)
• Diogenes Laertius’ Lives of Eminent Philosophers

Modern Introductions

• “A History of Western Philosophy” – Bertrand Russell
• “The Greeks and the Irrational” – E.R. Dodds
• “Ancient Philosophy: A New History” – Julia Annas
• “Aristotle’s Way” – Edith Hall

Online Resources

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (plato.stanford.edu)
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (iep.utm.edu)
• Perseus Digital Library (ancient texts with translations)
• In Our Time podcast (BBC) episodes on ancient philosophers