Introduction
Constructed languages (conlangs) are artificial languages created for various purposes, from fictional worlds to international communication. Grammar forms the backbone of any conlang, establishing rules for how words combine to create meaning. This cheatsheet provides a structured approach to developing a comprehensive grammar system for your conlang.
Core Grammatical Concepts
Typological Parameters
| Parameter | Options | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Word Order | SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV, OVS | English (SVO), Japanese (SOV), Hawaiian (VSO) |
| Head Direction | Head-initial, Head-final | English (mostly head-initial), Japanese (head-final) |
| Morphological Type | Isolating, Fusional, Agglutinative, Polysynthetic | Chinese (isolating), Latin (fusional), Turkish (agglutinative), Inuktitut (polysynthetic) |
| Alignment | Nominative-accusative, Ergative-absolutive, Active-stative, Tripartite | English (nom-acc), Basque (erg-abs), Guaraní (active-stative) |
Phonological Considerations
- Phonotactics: Define allowed syllable structures (CV, CVC, CCVC, etc.)
- Stress patterns: Fixed (e.g., always on first syllable) or variable
- Morphophonemic rules: Sound changes at morpheme boundaries
- Tone or pitch accent: Whether your language uses tone distinctions
Noun Systems
Grammatical Categories for Nouns
- Number: Singular, dual, trial, paucal, plural
- Gender/noun class: Masculine/feminine, animate/inanimate, or semantic classes
- Case: Nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, etc.
- Definiteness: Definite, indefinite, specific, non-specific
- Possession: Alienable vs. inalienable possession
Nominal Morphology Checklist
- [ ] How are plurals formed? (Affixes, ablaut, reduplication, etc.)
- [ ] How many cases exist and how are they marked?
- [ ] Are there irregular noun forms?
- [ ] How do pronouns differ from nouns?
- [ ] Does the language use classifiers or measure words?
Verb Systems
Verbal Categories
- Tense: Past, present, future, non-past, etc.
- Aspect: Perfective, imperfective, progressive, habitual, etc.
- Mood: Indicative, subjunctive, imperative, optative, etc.
- Voice: Active, passive, middle, antipassive, etc.
- Evidentiality: Direct witness, inference, hearsay, etc.
- Valency: Intransitive, transitive, ditransitive, causative, applicative
Verb Conjugation Patterns
- Regular verbs: Consistent patterns of inflection
- Irregular verbs: Special forms for high-frequency verbs
- Verb classes: Different conjugation patterns for different verb types
- Agreement markers: Person, number, gender of subject/object
Syntax Framework
Phrase Structure
- Noun phrases: Determiner + Adjective + Noun + Relative clause
- Verb phrases: Auxiliary + Adverb + Main verb + Complement
- Adpositional phrases: Preposition/postposition + Noun phrase
Clausal Structure
- Main clauses: Declarative, interrogative, imperative
- Subordinate clauses: Relative, adverbial, complement
- Coordination: And, or, but equivalents
- Embedding: How clauses fit inside other clauses
Specialized Grammatical Features
Noun-Related Features
- Articles: Definite, indefinite, zero
- Demonstratives: This, that, yonder equivalents
- Quantifiers: Many, few, some, all equivalents
- Numerals: Cardinal, ordinal systems
Verb-Related Features
- Modal verbs: Can, must, should equivalents
- Serial verb constructions: Multiple verbs in sequence
- Verbal nouns: Infinitives, gerunds, participles
- Copulas: To be equivalents (or zero copula)
Step-by-Step Conlang Grammar Creation Process
- Choose typological parameters: Decide on basic word order and morphological type
- Develop phonology: Create sound inventory and phonotactics
- Design core morphology: Establish how words change form
- Create a case system (if applicable): Determine how grammatical relations are marked
- Develop verb conjugations: Design tense/aspect/mood systems
- Establish syntax rules: Determine phrase and clause structures
- Add grammatical particles: Develop articles, prepositions, conjunctions
- Test with sample sentences: Verify your grammar works for varied expressions
- Document exceptions: Note irregular forms and special cases
- Refine and expand: Add sophistication based on testing
Common Challenges and Solutions
| Challenge | Solution |
|---|---|
| Over-complexity | Start with core features, add complexity gradually |
| Inconsistency | Document rules carefully, test regularly |
| Unnaturalness | Study natural language features for inspiration |
| Missing vocabulary | Create derivational morphology to generate new words |
| Grammar gaps | Test grammar with diverse sentence types to identify gaps |
Advanced Features to Consider
Information Structure
- Topic and focus: How important information is highlighted
- Word order variation: For emphasis or special meaning
- Cleft constructions: Special structures for emphasis
Discourse Features
- Cohesion markers: Words that connect sentences
- Honorifics: Social status markers in grammar
- Discourse particles: Subtle meaning modifiers
- Reported speech: Direct vs. indirect quotation
Best Practices
- Maintain documentation: Keep detailed notes on all grammatical rules
- Create paradigm tables: For regular and irregular forms
- Test with different sentence types: Questions, commands, statements
- Develop a style guide: For consistent application of your grammar
- Balance naturalism and creativity: Draw inspiration from natural languages while adding unique features
- Consider language evolution: Rules that might change over time in your conlang
Resources for Further Learning
Books
- “The Language Construction Kit” by Mark Rosenfelder
- “Advanced Language Construction” by Mark Rosenfelder
- “Describing Morphosyntax” by Thomas Payne
Online Resources
- The Language Creation Society (conlang.org)
- David J. Peterson’s courses on language creation
- Artifexian YouTube channel for conlang tutorials
- The Conlanger’s Library (for linguistic references)
Software Tools
- Lexique Pro (for dictionary creation)
- FrathWiki (for documentation)
- Polyglot (for testing grammar)
- SCA² (Sound Change Applier)
This cheatsheet provides a framework for constructing a language grammar. Remember that natural languages are complex systems that evolve organically—your conlang can be as simple or intricate as you desire. Balance systematic rules with creative irregularities for a language that feels both logical and natural.